The
Vedas are the original knowledge given by the Supreme Personality of Godhead in
the beginning of Creation. They were revealed by the Lord Himself to Brahma,
from within his heart (tene brahma hrida ya adi-kavaye [SB 1.1.1]).
Srila
Prabhupada writes:
The
original source of knowledge is the Vedas. There are no branches of knowledge,
either mundane or transcendental, which do not belong to the original text of
the Vedas. They have simply been developed into different branches. They were
originally rendered by great, respectable and learned professors. In other
words, the Vedic knowledge, broken into different branches by different
disciplic successions, has been distributed all over the world. No one,
therefore, can claim independent knowledge beyond the Vedas.
(SB
1.4.23 purport)
Everything
we know, material and spiritual, everything we want to learn, or everything we
have forgotten long ago, has its origin in the Vedas.
The
word “veda” comes from the sanskrit root “vid” which means “to know” and thus
“veda” means knowledge. Veda denotes the Science of God, and the ultimate goal
of life.
The
Vedic literatures describe the divine laws enacted by the Supreme Personality
of Godhead (dharmam tu saksad bhagavat-pranitam [SB 6.3.19]). These divine
injunctions are the root of the original religion in the Universe. “The Vedas
constitute the root of all dharma.”(Manusmriti) The Vedas themselves proclaim
tasya vak-tantir namani damani tasyedam vaca tantya namabhir damabhih sarvam
sitam: "The threads of this transcendental sound form a string of sacred
names, but also a set of binding ropes. With the rope of their injunctions, the
Vedas tie up this entire world, leaving all beings fettered by false
designations.”(SB 10.87.27. purport)
Srila
Prabhupada compares the Vedas to a manual by which the customer can understand
how to use properly the goods he has bought:
The
other day I explained, Veda means, just like this dictaphone machine is
manufactured, along with [it] one literature is also compiled. So customers,
they are given the delivery of the machine as well as the literature how to use
it. That is the Vedas. Therefore Krsna says that vedanta-krd, I am the compiler
of the Vedas. Because if He does not give the literature, then how will [we] use
the machine. The manufacturer of the machine, he knows how to use it, what for
it is, how to manipulate it. (Srila Prabhupada, lecture on
Bhagavad-gita in Paris, August 5, 1976.)
Similarly,
by following the Vedic rules, the living entities can learn how to deal
properly with the material energy, and how to attain liberation from it.
The
Vedas are perfect and complete. They are free of the four defects of the
conditioned souls namely to make mistakes, to be in illusion, to cheat, and to
have to rely on imperfect senses. Therefore they are called “apauruseya”, not
made by a man. In the introduction to Isopanisad Srila Prabhupada writes:
The
Vedas are not compilations of human knowledge. Vedic knowledge comes from the
spiritual world, from Lord Krishna.
Thus
the Vedic injunctions are absolute. Even if they contradict what is usually
called “common sense”, they are still to be accepted as a self-sufficient
authority. Srila Prabhupada gives often the example of the cow dung being pure:
This is
the Vedic principle, and we accept it. Vedic principles are accepted as
axiomatic truth, for there cannot be any mistake. That is acceptance. For
instance, in India cow dung is accepted as pure, and yet cow dung is the stool
of an animal. In one place you'll find the Vedic injunction that if you touch
stool, you have to take a bath immediately. But in another place it is said
that the stool of a cow is pure. If you smear cow dung in an impure place, that
place becomes pure. With our ordinary sense we can argue, "This is contradictory."
Actually, it is contradictory from the ordinary point of view, but it is not
false. (Introduction to Isopanisad)
The
Vedic literatures are not a subject of mundane empirical research. The
nonbelievers have not a bona fide access to the divine secrets of the Vedic
texts (bhakto 'si me sakha ceti
rahasyam
hy etad uttamam, BG 4.3). Although many scholars endeavor to explore the
scriptures of Bharata Varsa, they often find themselves unable to even properly
date them, what to speak of understanding their real meaning.
Indeed,
Moriz Winternitz, one of the most respected chronologists, argues that any
attempt to reconstruct the Vedic period is unscientific. He writes, "The
chronology of the history of Indian literature is shrouded in truly terrifying
darkness." Winternitz quotes a pioneer American Sanskritist who years ago
said, "All dates given in Indian literary history are pins set up to be
bowled down again. (Readings in the
Vedic Literatures – Satsvarupa Das Goswami)
The
difficulties the scholars meet with, while attempting to trace back the
beginning of the Vedas, are easy to explain if we are aware that the Vedas are
in fact eternal. In Brihadaranyaka Upanisad (2.4.10) it is stated that Rg,
Yajur, Sama, Atharva Vedas, the Puranas and Itihasas are the very breath of the
Lord. Since the Supreme Personality of Godhead is absolute, he is identical
with his breath. Consequently the Vedas are non different from Him.
There is
no difference between the Vedas and the Lord. The Vedas aim at the understanding
of the Lord, and the Lord is the Vedas personified. (SB 3.1.33, purport)
In
the beginning of creation, Lord Krishna revealed the Vedas to Brahma, the first
living being in the Universe. Brahma handed down the divine knowledge to his
mental sons, the great sages (rsis). The sages taught the same knowledge to his
disciples and in this way the scriptures were transmitted without any change.
Sometimes some parts of the scriptures get lost due to break in disciplic
succession (sa kaleneha mahata yogo nastah parantapa, BG 4.2) They are again
heard in trance by the rsis. Rsi means a seer or one who perceives the Vedic
texts (mantra drsta). He hears it in trance and realizes its meaning. Thus the
Vedic sages play a crucial role for preserving the scriptures and presenting
them again and again to the world.
When
the Vedas are being recited, it is the tradition to mention the name of the rsi
who is connected with the particular section, as well as his lineage or
“gotra”. For instance, “Agastyo Mitravarunih”, that is Agastya, the son of
Mitra-Varuna, or “Madhuchanda Visvamitrah”, the sage Madhuchanda, descended
from the Visvamitra gotra. The fact that the mantras are associated with the
names of different sages does not mean that the sages themselves composed the
mantras. When we say that Columbus discovered America we do not mean that he
created it, rather we mean that he made the continent known to the world.
Similarly the Vedic seers did not create the Vedic mantras, they merely
revealed them for the benefit of all. Srila Prabhupäda explains:
Regarding
your first question, who is the speaker of Isopanisad? The speaker is the Vedas
personified. In the Vedic age a disciple heard from the Spiritual Master
messages which were coming down in disciplic succession, so a disciple,
whatever he heard from his bona fide Spiritual Master, would recite. The Vedic
mantras are known as Sruti, to hear from authoritative source and then repeat
it, chanting. So there is no question of who wrote it, it is said that no human
being has compiled them. Later on, before the beginning of Kali Yuga, all Vedic
mantras were written in books, most of them were done by Srila Vyasadeva
Mahamuni and his different disciples.
(Letter
to Citsukananda, 70-04-28)
The
Vedas are called “sruti” which means “that what is heard”. The word “srotra”
means “ear”. The Vedas have been handed down orally from generation to
generation and have not been taught or learned from any written text. In the
previous ages the Brahmanas were so intelligent that they were able to remember
and understand the Vedic mantras just by listening them from the Guru. 5000
years ago Srila Vyasadeva could see that the intelligence of the people living
in Kali Yuga will decrease and therefore he divided the unified Veda:
Originally
the Veda is one. But Srila Vyasadeva divided the original Veda into four,
namely Sama, Yajur, Rg, Atharva, and then again they were explained in
different branches like the Puranas and the Mahabharata. (SB 1.3.21)
Thus the
great sage Vyasadeva, who is very kind to the ignorant masses, edited the Vedas
so they might be assimilated by less intellectual men. (SB 1.4.24)
Srila
Vyasadeva entrusted the different branches of the Vedas to his disciples. All
these learned scholars, in their turn, rendered their entrusted Vedas unto
their many disciples, grand-disciples and great grand-disciples, and thus the
respective branches of the followers of the Vedas came into being. (SB 1.4.23)
At
the end of every Dvapara Yuga there is different Vyasa who divides the Vedas
for the benefit of the less intelligent men. Both Srimad Bhagavatam and Visnu
Purana declare that the present Vyasa, Krishna-dvaipayana Vyasa, is an
incarnation of the Lord.
In
Sri Visnu Purana (3.4.2.–5) Parasara Muni says:
Then, during the period
of the twenty-eighth Manu, the great master, my son Vyasa, divided the one Veda with
four divisions into four separate books. In the same way as he, the brilliant
editor of the Vedas, arranged their entire text into various books, so have
other Vyasas in
the past, including myself. O best of brahmanas,
you can understand that thus in each of the rotations of the cycle of four ages
a different Vyasa
organizes the branches of the Vedas. But know that Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa is the Supreme Lord Narayana Himself. Who else on this
earth, Maitreya, could be the author of the Mahabharata?
In
Srimad Bhagavatam it is stated:
Thereafter,
in the seventeenth incarnation of Godhead, Sri Vyasadeva appeared in the womb
of Satyavati through Parasara Muni, and he divided the one Veda into several
branches and sub-branches, seeing that the people in
general were less intelligent. (SB
1.3.21)
The
language of the Vedas, sanskrit, is known as “the language of God and the
demigods” (Srila Prabhupada, letter to Madhusudana). Srila Prabhupada
translates the word “sanskrit” as “the most perfect”:
Sanskrit
is the origin of all languages of the civilized peoples. It is most perfect,
not only descriptive; the word “Sanskrit” means “the most perfect”. Because not
a single word you can pronounce without having a bona fide principle.
Sanskrit
language is not result of casual convention between people; it is a
reproduction in sound of the structure of reality. As a contemporary scholar
admits:
Sanskrit
words were not just arbitrary labels assign to phenomena; they were the sound
forms of objects, actions and attributes, related to the corresponding reality
in the same way as visual forms, and different only in being perceived by the
ear not by the eye. (Thomas J. Hopkins,
as quoted in “Sonic Theology” by Guy L. Beck)
Manu-samhita (1.21) states:
Sarvesam tu sa namani karmani ca prthak prthakveda-sabdebhya
evadau prthak-samstas ca nirmame
Lord Brahma learned the names of various objects
and the duties of various classes of people from the words of the Vedas, and thus he could propagate the
manifest divisions of names and duties.
In his Harinamrta Vyakarana Srila Jiva Gosvami states:
Narayanad udbhuto yam varnakramah
The Sanskrit letters originate from Narayana.
When
properly chanted, the Vedic mantras have the power to manipulate the physical
reality in miraculous ways. Lord Brahma was able to accomplish the great task
of creating the Universe by the power of the Vedic mantras.
In
ultimate sense, the Vedas are divine personalities who are personal associates
of the Supreme Personality of Godhead. They eternally reside in the abode of
the Lord. From Srimad Bhagavatam we learn that before the creation, the
personified Vedas woke up Lord Maha-Visnu by offering Him prayers:
Sri
Sanandana replied: After the Supreme Lord withdrew the universe He had
previously created, He lay for some time as if asleep, and all His energies
rested dormant within Him. When the time came for the next creation, the
personified Vedas awakened Him by chanting His glories, just as the poets
serving a king approach him at dawn and awaken him by reciting his heroic
deeds. (SB 10.87.12-13)
The Samhitas
Let
us now take a closer look at the four Vedas.
Although
eternal, they enter the material world periodically, at the beginning of each
day of Brahma when one Veda appears from each of his four mouths:
When
Lord Brahma first spoke the four Vedas with his four mouths, the mantras were
mixed together like an unsorted collection of various types of jewels. Srila
Vyasadeva sorted the Vedic mantras into four divisions (samhitas), which thus
became the recognizable Rg, Atharva, Yajur and Sama Vedas. (SB 12.6.50, purport)
According to
Muktikopanisad originally the four Vedas had 21, 109, 1000, and 9 branches
respectively,
or in total 1,130 branches (sakhas). Every
branch of the Vedas consists of four parts: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and
Upanisad. Consequently there were originaly 1,130 Samhitas, 1,130 Brahmanas,
1,130 Aranyakas and 1,130 Upanisads. By
the influence of time, however, many texts have been lost.
When
we speak about one of the four Vedas, often we actually mean its Samhita part
only. For example if we have a book, which contains just the Samhita part of
Rgveda, the book still will be called “Rgveda”. So when we mention a particular
Veda in the paragraph bellow, we mean its Samhita part.
The
word “samhita” means “systematized and collected together”. The Samhitas are
the main parts of the Vedas. They consist of mantras dedicated to different
demigods.
Rgveda
has 10,552 verses arranged in 10 sections called mandalas.
The
word “rk” means “stotra or hymn”. Rgveda constitutes mainly of hymns invoking
the demigods like Indra, Agni, Surya, Marut, and Rudra. Rgveda starts and ends
with suktas glorifying Agni. There are also some stories including a narration
of Lord Vamanadeva. In Rgveda the Supreme Personality of Godhead is glorified
in the Purusa Sukta which appears in the 90th chapter of the 10th mandala. It
is said that Purusa Sukta is the original Vedic Hymn form which all the Vedas
emanate. It is the standard prayer demigods recite to please Lord Maha-Visnu.
In
the famous verse form Rgveda it is stated:
tad visnoh paramam padam
sada pasyanti surayah
diviva caksur atatam
The
Personality of Godhead Visnu is the Absolute Truth, whose lotus feet all the
demigods are always eager to see. Like the sun-god, He pervades everything by
the rays of His energy. He appears impersonal to imperfect eyes. (Rgveda Samhita 1.20.22)
Modern
indologists often assert that Rgveda is the oldest of all Vedas. This is not
accepted by the followers of the Vedic tradition. The Vedas are eternal and
thus there is no need to endeavor to prove which one came first. Moreover in Rgveda itself, Yajurveda and
Samaveda are mentioned in several places.
Yajurveda
has 1,975 verses in 10 chapters. The word “yajus” comes from the root “yaj”
which means “to worship”. “Yajna” is derived from the same root. Consequently
“yajus” means the worship connected with sacrifices. Yajurveda is a practical
application of the mantras from the Rgveda for performing yajnas. Yajurveda
describes in prose the actual conduct of the rites. For instance, how to create
the fire altar for yajna, how to perform ashvameha, rajasuya, darsa-purnamasa,
somayagya sacrifices, etc. The Purusa Sukta from Rgveda appears with some
changes in Yajurveda too.
A
distinctive feature of Yajurveda is that it is divided in two parts, Sukla
Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda. Before the time of Yajnavalkya, Yajurveda was one
undivided scripture. Yajnavaklya learned it from Visayampayana. Because of some
mistake Yajnavalkya was rejected by his Guru, and was ordered to return back
everything he had learned from him. Yajnavalkya vomited the mantras from
Yajurveda. Afterwards he worshiped the sun-god and received from him new
Yajur-mantras, unknown even to Visayampayana. This “new” compilation of mantras
is known as “Sukla Yajurveda”. The “old” part that was taught by Visayampayana
is Krishna Yajurveda. (The story appears in Srimad Bhagavatam, 12 canto,
chapter 6).
Isopanisad
occurs toward the end of the Samhita of the Sukla Yajurveda.
Among
the four Vedas Yajurveda has the largest number of followers. Most of the North
Indian Brahmanas belong to Sukla Yajurveda, while in South India Krishna
Yajurveda predominates. The family (gotra) of Rupa and Sanatana Gosvami
belonged to the Sukla Yajurveda tradition.
Samaveda
has 1,875 verses in 21 chapters. The word “sama” refers to that which brings
equipoise or tranquility to the mind. By the hymns of the Rgveda the deities
are invoked (sambandha), by following the injunctions of the Yajurveda the
sacrificial fire altar is prepared and the ritual is properly conducted
(abhideya). Through the mantras of Samaveda the same deities are being
glorified and pleased (prayojana). Many of the mantras from Rgveda appear in
Samaveda also, but they are chanted according to different rules. While the rks
are chanted with tonal differences only, the “samanas” (mantras of Samaveda)
are actually singed. The Vedic musical science has its origin in Samaveda.
The
samanas have a special potency to please the deities invoked. In Bhagavad-Gita
Lord Krishna says: “vedanam sama-vedo 'smi”, “Of the Vedas I am Samaveda” (BG
10.22) The Lord says furthermore: “brihat-sama tatha samnam”, “Of the hymns in
the Samaveda I am the Brihat-sama”. (BG 10.35)
Lord
Caitanya’s father, Jaganatha Misra, was a samavedi.
Atharvaveda
comprise of 5,977 verses in 20 chapters.
The
word “atharvan” means a priest. Atharvaveda is mainly in prose. It contains
mantras and rituals for fulfillment of material desires like to bring welfare
in the family, to remove the effects of sinful activities (prayascita), to cure
snakebite etc. There are also mantras for guarding oneself from misfortunes and
incantations which bring destruction to one’s enemies. The magical rites have
their origin in this Veda.
It
is important to understand that the Vedas are not polytheistic although they do
prescribe worship of several demigods. The Vedic version is that there is only
one Supreme Personality of Godhead as it is confirmed in the already quoted
verse from Rgveda:
tad visnoh paramam padam
sada pasyanti surayah
diviva caksur atatam
The
Personality of Godhead Visnu is the Absolute Truth, whose lotus feet all the
demigods are always eager to see. Like the sun-god, He pervades everything by
the rays of His energy. He appears impersonal to imperfect eyes. (Rgveda Samhita 1.20.22)
The
different demigods are different manifestations of one underlying reality:
The one
reality is called by the wise in different ways: Agni, Yama, Matarisva… (Rgveda 1.164.46)
This
unified reality is the Supreme Lord Sri Krishna and all demigods are but
different aspects of His Universal Form. (BG 11.15)
As
contemporary scholars acknowledge:
Indian
monotheism in its living forms, from the Vedic age until now, has believed rather in the unity of the gods in God, than
the denial of gods for God. Hence Indian monotheism has a peculiarity which
distinguishes it from Christian and Mohamedan. This is a persistent feature of
Orthodox Indian faith throughout, not mere a passing phase of the Vedic times.
(“An
introduction to Indian Philosophy” by Satishandra Chaterjee and Dhirendramohan
Datta, University of Calcutta, 2004)
The
Samhita and Brahmana section of the Vedas deal mainly with the performing of
yajnas. The yajnas are conducted by four
brahmana priests (rtviks), assosiated with each of the four Vedas. The “hota”
priest invokes the deities through the mantras of Rgveda. The “adhvaryu”
arranges the sacrifice according to Yajurveda. The rtvik who glorifies the
demigods by singing the hymns from Samaveda is called “udgata”. There is also a priest who supervises the
entire yajna. It is his responsibility to point out the mistakes in the conduct
of the sacrifice and to lay down the prayascita (atonement) for it. He is
called brahma and he acts according to Atharvaveda.
The Brahmanas and the Aranyakas
So
far, we dealt with the Samhita part of the Vedas only.
The
next part is called “Brahmana”. The Brahmanas are prose texts which explain the
meaning and the practical application of the Samhitas. They give elaborate
instructions how to perform the yajnas.
Professor
Apte, in his dictionary, describes the Brahmana portion of the Vedas as that
portion which states the rules for employment of hymns at various sacrifices
and gives detailed explanations of their origin, sometimes with lengthy
illustrations in the form of legends and stories. It is distinct from the
mantra [Samhita] portion of the Vedas. (CC
Adi Lila, 7.106, purport)
The
Brahmanas are meant for the householders. When conducting the prescribed rites
purifies them, they can retire in the forests to undergo austerities.
Therefore, the next section of the Vedas is called “Aranyaka”. The word
“aranya” means a forest. The Aranyakas, like the Brahmanas, serve as a guide
for understanding the meaning of the mantras from the Samhitas. The difference
is that the Aranyakas are giving the esoteric, hidden meaning of the Samhitas.
They throw light on the metaphorical passages of the scriptures. In the
Aranyakas, more importance is given to the inner purpose and significance of
the sacrifice. For example, Brihadaranyaka Upanisad (which is both Aranyaka and
Upanisad) opens with a philosophical explanation of the horse sacrifice.
The
Samhitas are compared to a tree, the Brahmanas are the flowers, the Aranyakas
are the unripe fruit, and the Upanisads are the juice of the mellow fruit. The
Upanisads point to the Brahman, the Supreme Transcendence. They give spiritual
knowledge, which leads the soul to liberation from the bondage of matter.
The
Upanisads are of special importance and therefore we will deal with them
separately little later.
Standard classifications of the Vedic
literatures
Karma
kanda and jnana kanda
These
four parts of the Vedas (Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanisads) were
traditionally studied at different stages of life. The Vedic brahmacaris were
memorizing the mantras from the Samhitas and were learning how to chant them
according to the strict rules. The grihastas followed the instructions given in
the Brahmanas in order to perform their religious duties as householders. The
Aranyakas prepare one for the stage of complete renunciation of the world.
Therefore they were studied by the vanaprastas. And the Upanisads were meant
for the sannyasis.
The
Samhitas and the Brahmanas represent the karma kanda portion of the Vedas.
The
Aranyakas and the Upanisads outline the jnana kanda part.
The
rituals prescribed in the karma kanda section are meant to gradually purify the
heart of the performer. By honoring yajna-sista (food taken after performance
of yajna - BG 3.13) and by listening the instructions of the learned
brahmana-priests, the karma kandis are expected to develop detachment from the
material rewards of the sacrifices. Uplifted in this way, they can aim in
attaining liberation from material existence (mukti). And even beyond that, to
achieve shelter at the lotus feat of the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
The scriptures
compare Lord Yajna [Visnu] to a bridge (setu) that spans the shores of material
desire and spiritual desire. Satapatha Brahmana, a karma-kanda scripture,
follows this bridge from earth to heaven. [1] Mundaka Upanisad, a jnana-kanda scripture, follows
the bridge farther, to the immortal Self. [2] Svetasvatara Upanisad
follows the bridge farther still, to the Supreme Personality of Godhead
(purusam mahantam). [3] Inviting karmis and jnanis
to associate with His setu form, the Lord becomes sacrifices that attract their
natures.
(Suhotra
Swami, “Substance and Shadow”).
Thus
both karma kanda and jnana kanda part of the Vedas share the same goal.
Sruti,
Smriti and Nyaya
Besides
the divisions of karma and jnana kanda, the Vedic literatures are being classified
in three main sections namely sruti, smriti and nyaya.
Sruti
The
four Vedas are the sruti portion.
Smriti
Smriti
sastras are compiled remembering the meaning of the sruti and hence the name
smirti (what is remembered). In smriti the great sages - followers of the Vedas
- explain the different branches of Vedic knowledge. Smriti includes the
Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana, the Agamas, etc. Among the Smritis there is a
body of literature which is also called smriti such as Manusmriti. These
scriptures are part of dharmasastra or books giving religious code. Manusmriti
states: “The Sages who had mastered the Vedas composed the Smritis. Find out
what they have to say.” Thus the smriti represent the living Vedic tradition.
One
of the differences between Sruti and Smriti is the sanskrit language used in
them. The sanskrit in the Vedas is called “vedic Sanskrit”. The Vedic Sanskrit
is famous for its rigid rules regarding pronunciation. The words have accent,
akin to notes in music, and a word's meaning can change drastically simply by
changing the accent of its letters. There is a well known story from Srimad
Bhagavatam about the appearance of Vrtrasura. His father, Tvasta, wanted to
have a son who is an enemy of Indra. Unfortunately, instead of chanting the mantra
indra-satro short, Tvasta chanted it long, and its meaning changed from
"the enemy of Indra" to "Indra, who is an enemy." Thus,
instead of an enemy of Indra, there appeared Vritrasura, of whom Indra was an
enemy.
Smritis
on the other hand are written in laukika (classical) Sanskrit. It does not have
accent in its words.
Nyaya
Nyaya
refers to Vedanta Sutra. In Vedanta Sutra Srila Vyasadeva systematizes the
philosophy of the Upanisads in a very concise, (sutra) form. In a purport to
Sri Caitanya Caritamrita Srila Prabhupada writes:
According
to learned scholars, there are three different sources of knowledge, which are
called prasthana-traya. According to these scholars, Vedanta is one of such
sources, for it presents Vedic knowledge on the basis of logic and sound
arguments. In the Bhagavad-gita (13.5) the Lord says, brahma-sutra-padais caiva
hetumadbhir viniscitaih: “Understanding of the ultimate goal of life is
ascertained in the Brahma-sutra by legitimate logic and argument concerning
cause and effect.” Therefore the Vedanta-sutra is known as nyaya-prasthana, the
Upanisads are known as sruti-prasthana, and the Gita, Mahabharata and Puranas
are known as smriti-prasthana. All scientific knowledge of transcendence must
be supported by sruti, smriti and a sound logical basis. (CC Adi Lila, 7.106)
There are some
scholars who accept only the four Vedas as authoritative Vedic scriptures, thus
disregarding the Smritis. The Vaisnavas however regard as Vedic literatures the
Itihasas (Ramayana and Mahabharata), and the Puranas. This is confirmed by the
Srutis themselves. Chandogya Upanisad, one of the ten most important Upanisads,
declares: “itihasa-puranam pancamam vedanam vedam”, “the Itihasas and Puranas
are the fifth Veda”. Brihadaranyaka Upanisad states that the Itihasas and Puranas share the
same nature with the Vedas in terms of being “apauruseya”:
My dear Maitreyi, the Rg,
Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas, as
well as the Itihasas and Puranas, all
appear from the breathing of the Supreme Being. (Brhad-aranyaka Up. 2.4.10)
The Acaryas uphold
the same understanding. For example in his book “Vedartha-sangraha” Sri
Ramanujacarya states: itihasa-puranayoh vedopabrimhanayoh: “the Itihasas and Puranas, which seek to augment
the Vedas, embody the same truth.” (Vedartha-sangraha 216)
In our Gaudia
Sampradaya Srila Jiva Gosvami in his Tattva Sandarbha proves that the Puranas
are authoritative Vedic scriptures meant to explain the
meaning of the Vedas. Jiva Goswami gives the
example of a chipped gold bracelet. It is to be supplemented only with gold,
and not with any inferior material. In the same way the Vedas are completed and
enhanced by the Puranas and especially by Srimad Bhagavatam:
This
is why the Mahabharata [Adi-parva 1.267] and Manu-samhita state, “One should
complement one’s understanding of the Vedas with the help of the Itihasas and
Puranas.” And elsewhere it is stated, “The Puranas are called by that name
because they complete (purana).”
This
explanatory role of the Smritis is mentioned in the Nirukti dictionary:
As
confirmed in the Nirukti dictionary, lokyate vedartho 'nena: "The purpose
of the Vedas is explained by the smriti scriptures."
(BG
15.18 purport)
Sometimes
it is said that Vedas speak as a king does. The subject must obey king’s orders
without arguing back. The Puranas however speak as an intimate friend. They
explain in simple words why the rules and regulations should be followed, and
how the obedience to sastra will bring a good fortune to the follower.
Srila
Prabhupada concludes:
Above the four Vedas, namely Rg,
Yajur, Sama, and Atharva, there are the Puranas, the Mahabharata, Samhitas,
etc., which are known as the fifth Veda. Sri Vyasadeva and his many disciples
were all historical personalities, and they were very kind and sympathetic
toward the fallen souls of this age of Kali. As such, the Puranas and
Mahabharata were made from related historical facts which explained the
teaching of the four Vedas. There is no point in doubting the authority of the
Puranas and Mahabharata as parts and parcels of the Vedas. In the Chandogya
Upanisad (7.1.4), the Puranas and Mahabharata, generally known as histories,
are mentioned as the fifth Veda. According to Srila Jiva Gosvami, that is the
way of ascertaining the respective values of the revealed scriptures.
(SB 1.4.19, purport)
Foolish
people say that the Puräëas have no connection with the Vedas. However, the
Puräëas are supplementary explanations of the Vedas intended for different
types of men. All men are not equal. There are men who are conducted by the
mode of goodness, others who are under the mode of passion and others who are
under the mode of ignorance. The Puräëas are so divided that any class of men
can take advantage of them and gradually regain their lost position and get out
of the hard struggle for existence. (SB
1.2.4, purport)
Not only the Puranas are authoritative Vedic books,
but in fact Srimad Bhagavata Purana is the topmost Vedic literature (SB 1.1.3).
In his Tattva Sandarbha Srila Jiva Goswami proves that
Bhagavatam is the emperor among all pramanas. Since Srimad Bhagavatam contains
the essence of all scriptures, the meaning we derive from the Vedas and
Upanisads should not contradict the conclusions of Bhagavatam.
Caturdasa-vidya
An
important way of classifying the Vedic literatures is according to the fourteen
divisions of knowledge (caturdasa-vidya).
Srila
Prabhupada mentions them in a purport to Bhagavad Gita 10.32:
For
advanced education there are various kinds of books of knowledge, such as the
four Vedas, their six supplements, the Vedanta-sutra, books of logic, books of
religiosity and the Puranas. So all together there are fourteen divisions of
books of education.
Visnu
Purana also states:
The four
Vedas with its six angas, mimamsa, nyaya, dharma sastra, and Puranas are
considered the fourteen types of knowledge.
(Visnu
Purana 3.6.28)
Thus
the fourteen books of knowledge are the four Vedas, the six Vedangas (Siksa,
Vyakarana, Chanda, Nirukta, Kalpa, and Jyotis), and the four Upangas (Vedanta,
Purana, Dharmasastra, and Nyaya).
Since
we already spoke about the four Vedas, let us now take a look at the Vedangas.
Vedangas
The
word vedanga means the limb (anga) of the body of “Vedapurusa”, the personified
knowledge. The Vedangas provide an access to the Vedas and explain how the
Vedic knowledge should be used. There are six Vedangas:
Siksa (phonetics)
The
correct pronunciation of the Vedic mantras according to strict rules is of
utmost importance for the success of any yajna. Siksa is a very complicated
science because in the Vedic sanskrit every letter has four vocal dimensions to
observe: pitch (high, low or medium voice); duration (shorter or longer);
position (cerebral, palatal, nasal, etc.) and stress (how much the letter
should be stressed).
Vyakarana (grammar)
There
are two sets of grammar, one for the Vedic Samhitas and one for the Smritis. The sages Panini and Patanjali are among the foremost authorities of
Vyakarana.
Chanda (prosody/meter)
There
are different Vedic Chandas (metres) according to the number of their letters
and lines. Anustup for instance has 32 letters in four lines (8+8+8+8). If the
chand has 36 letters in four parts (8+8+12+8) it is called brhati. The Gayatri
chand has 24 letters in three parts (8+8+8).
Unlike
the mundane poetry, the Vedic metres are not a result of human speculations,
but rather they are eternal and divine as the Vedas themselves. In Srimad
Bhagavatam (3.12.45–46) it is stated:
The
principal Vedic hymn, gayatri, was generated from the skin, tristup from the
flesh, anustup from the veins, and jagati from the bones of the Lord of the
living entities. The art of writing verse, pankti, became manifested from the
bone marrow, and that of brihati, another type of verse, was generated from the
life-breath of the Lord of the living entities.
Nirukta (vocabulary) Nirukta deals
with the etymology and the meaning of the words used in the Vedas. It explains
why or how a word is used in particular context.
Jyotis (mathematics and astronomy)
By
Jyotis it is possible to choose an auspicious moment for performing a
sacrifice.
Kalpa (ritual)
After
memorizing the Vedas and learning the science of proper pronunciation, after
mastering the grammar, the chandas, nirukta and jyotis, a man is expected to
apply all this knowledge in practical work. The Kalpa deals with this practical
application of the Vedic knowledge in life. It describes in detail all the
ritualistic and non-ritualistic religious observances prescribed in the Vedas.
For example: the general daily prayer (sandhya vandana), hospitality to a
guest, daily studies of the scriptures, birth or name giving ceremony of a
child, marriage, establishment of a deity in the Temple, etc.
Upangas
The
prefix “upa” means “subsidiary”. The Upangas deal with the practical application
of the Vedic knowledge in human life. As we already mentioned, there are four
upangas:
Vedanta (Philosophy)
Vedanta
gives the philosophical interpretation of the Vedic texts.
Purana (History)
Historical
accounts describing how different personalities used or misused the Vedas and
what result they achieved. There are two kinds of histories, namely the general
histories (Purana) and specific histories about certain person (Itihasa).
Parts
of the broad category of history are also the social sciences, sometimes called
Upavedas (Gandharvaveda – music, drama and dance; Ayurveda - medicine and
psychology; Sthapanaveda - deities, architecture, city planning; Dhanurveda -
military and political sciences).
Based
on these Vedic sciences there are 64 Vedic arts which teach how to apply the
science in the practical life.
Dharmasastra (the religion of the human
beings)
The
Dharmasastras describe the appropriate standards for human behavior.
Nyaya (Logic)
Nyaya
teaches the proper way of thinking.
We
can conclude that besides the four Vedas the Vedic literatures include also
other scriptures like the Vedangas, Upavedas, Vedanta Sutra, Puranas, Itihasas,
Dharmasastras, and the Agamas.
This
is the opinion of all great Acharyas like Ramanuja, Madhva, and Jiva Gosvami.
Srila
Prabhupada writes:
The most
widely recognized scriptures in the world are the Vedas. The Vedas have been
divided into four parts: Sama, Yajur, Rg and Atharva. The subject matter of the
Vedas is very difficult for a man of ordinary understanding. For elucidation,
the four Vedas are explained in the historical epic called the Mahabharata and
in eighteen Puranas. The Ramayana is also a historical epic which contains all
the necessary information from the Vedas. So the four Vedas, the original Ramayana
by Valmiki, the Mahabharata and the Puranas are classified as Vedic
literatures. The Upanisads are parts of the four Vedas, and the Vedanta-sutras
represent the cream of the Vedas. To summarize all these Vedic literatures, the
Bhagavad-gita is accepted as the essence of all Upanisads and the preliminary
explanation of the Vedanta-sutras. One may then conclude that from the
Bhagavad-gita alone one can have the essence of the Vedas, for it is spoken by
Lord Sri Krishna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead, who descends upon this
material world from the antimaterial world in order to give complete
information of the superior form of energy.
(“Easy
jorney to other planets – Antimaterial worlds”)
Upanisads (Vedanta)
The
Upanisads are the final portion of the Vedas. They have a special significance
and thus deserve a special attention.
The
Upanisads are important because they are widely recognized as an authoritative
source of knowledge. All sampradayas (the four Vaisnava schools and the
followers of Adi Sankara) base their teachings on the Upanisads. Since the
other schools do not usually accept Srimad Bhagavatam as the most authoritative
evidence, in the past the Gaudia Acaryas had to quote from the Upanisads in
order to establish their conclusions. Consequently when Srila Bhaktisidhanta
Sarasvati Thakur had his bhakti-sastri courses in Gaudia Math, the Upanisads
were included as a part of the studies.
Srila
Prabhupada in several places in his books and lectures stresses the importance
of giving references from the Upanisads:
Upanisads
are the headlines of the Vedas. Just like in a chapter there is a headline,
similarly these Upanisads are the headlines of the Vedas. There are 108
Upanisads, principal. Out of that, nine Upanisads are very important. So out of
those nine Upanisads, Svetasvatara Upanisad, Taittireya Upanisad, Aitareya
Upanisad, Isopanisad, Isa Upanisad, Mundaka Upanisad, Mandukya Upanisad,
Kathopanisad, these Upanisads are very important. And whenever there is
argument on some point, one has to give reference from these Upanisads. If one
can give reference from the Upanisads, then his argument is very strong.
Sabda-pramana. Pramana means evidence. Evidence... If you want to gain in your
case... Just like you have to give very nice evidence in a court, similarly,
according to Vedic culture, the evidence is pramana. Pramana means evidence.
Sabda-pramana. (Srila Prabhupada
lecture, November 27, 1968, Los Angeles)
The
Upanisads are widely recognized not only in India but in the West as well. Their lofty, esoteric teachings have drawn the
attention of many scholars and philosophers. For example,
The
famous German philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer, became completely enchanted by
the Upanisads. Upon reading a translation into Latin, he called them ‘the production of the highest human
wisdom.’ Considering the Upanisads
to contain almost superhuman conceptions, Schopenhauer
said , ‘It is the most satisfying and elevated
reading which is possible in the world; it has been solace in life and
will be the solace of my death.’ (Devamrita Swami, “In search of
Vedic India”)
Although
the western scholars generally do not view the Upanisads as absolute spiritual
authority as the Indian transcendentalists do, the upanisadic texts are still
considered as one of the most important sources of knowledge in the Vedic
tradition.
Consequently,
preaching from the Upanisads would be appreciated among the scholars both in
the East and in West.
Besides
the importance for the preaching mission, the Upanisads are of great value for
the devotees themselves. Knowledge of the Upanisads can strengthen the faith of
the sadhakas, to deepen their knowledge and understanding of the philosophy of
Krishna consciousness. Srila Prabhupada writes:
The
Vaisnavas are by far the greatest philosophers in the world, and the greatest
among them was Srila Jiva Gosvami Prabhu, whose philosophy was again presented
less than four hundred years later by Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura
Maharaja. Therefore one must know very well that Vaisnava philosophers are not
sentimentalists or cheap devotees like the sahajiyas. All the Vaisnava acaryas
were vastly learned scholars who understood Vedanta philosophy fully, for
unless one knows Vedanta philosophy he cannot be an acarya. To be accepted as
an acarya among Indian transcendentalists who follow the Vedic principles, one
must become a vastly learned scholar in Vedanta philosophy, either by studying
it or hearing it. Bhakti develops in pursuance of Vedanta philosophy. This is
stated in Srimad-Bhagavatam (1.2.12):
tac chraddadhana munayo jnana-vairagya-yuktaya
paçyanty atmani catmanam bhaktya sruta-grihitaya
The
words bhaktya sruta-grihitaya in this verse are very important, for they
indicate that bhakti must be based upon the philosophy of the Upanisads and
Vedanta-sutra. Srila Rupa Gosvami said:
sruti-smriti-puranadi-pancaratra-vidhim vina
aikantiki harer bhaktir utpatayaiva kalpate
“Devotional
service performed without reference to the Vedas, Puranas, Pancaratras, etc.,
must be considered sentimentalism, and it causes nothing but disturbance to
society.” There are different grades of Vaisnavas (kanistha-adhikari,
madhyama-adhikari and uttama-adhikari), but to be a madhyama-adhikari preacher
one must be a learned scholar in the Vedanta-sutra and other Vedic literatures
because when bhakti-yoga develops on the basis of Vedanta philosophy it is
factual and steady. [Brs. 1.2.101]
A
sincere devotee must, therefore, be prepared to hear the Vedic literature like
the Upanisads, Vedanta-sutra and other literatures left by the previous
authorities, or Gosvamis, for the benefit of his progress. Without hearing such
literatures, one cannot make actual progress. And without hearing and following
the instructions, the show of devotional service becomes worthless and
therefore a sort of disturbance in the path of devotional service.
(CC Adi Lila, 7.102
purport)
The
Upanisads constitute the philosophical section of the Vedas. They give
spiritual knowledge about the impersonal Brahman and the Supreme Personality of
Godhead. The Upanisads are called “Vedanta”. That means that they reveal the
ultimate meaning of the Vedas which goes beyond the ritualistic ceremonies for
material prosperity. As it is stated in Gitopanisad, the essence of all the
Upanisads:
trai-gunya-visaya veda
nistrai-gunyo bhavarjuna
The
Vedas deal mainly with the subject of the three modes of material nature. O
Arjuna, become transcendental to these three modes.
(BG
2.45)
The
Upanisads themselves proclaim that even after study of the Vedas with all their
branches one’s education is not complete until he studies the Upanisads.
(Chandogya Upanisad, chapters 6 and 7.)
Therefore
the teachings of the Upanisads are sometimes called “Vedopanisad”, or the
mystery of the Vedas. (Taittirya Upanisad 1.11)
The
fact that the Upanisads comprise the philosophical conclusions of the Vedas
does not mean that they are something like the Western philosophical
speculations.
In
the context of the Western philosophy the truth is apprehended merely on an
intellectual plane, and the method of knowledge is to explain the sense data
with mental speculation.
The
Vedic method of knowledge is “darsana”, a systematic revelation of spiritual
reality. The Upanisads are sabda brahma, spiritual sound vibrations. They are
intended to bestow genuine realizations (vijnana) that the self is not matter
but a spirit soul (“aham brahmasmi”, Brhadaranyaka Upanisad) and that the
individual soul is depended on the Supreme Soul (“eko bahunam yo vidadhati
kaman”, Katha Upanisad).
In
the Vedas there is a prescribed way of life for the civilized man; there are
many rules and duties intended to discipline and purify him. After leading such
a life dedicated to self-realization and eventually forsaking all materialistic
activities, the seeker meditates on the truths of the Upanisads. Thus these
truths are not merely intellectual ideas but become a living spiritual reality.
Therefore
according to Brhadaranyaka Upanisad (2.4.5), there are three stages of
education.
First
is sravana, or hearing from a teacher, then manana, or acquisition of spiritual
insight and understanding by reflecting on the subject, and finally,
realization an application in life, or nidhidyasana. As we can see from the
history of the Western philosophy, the level of realization and practical
application of the spiritual knowledge was very rarely reached.
The
word Upa-ni-sat means “Sit near by”. That refers to acquiring spiritual
knowledge from a bona fide Spiritual Teacher who is coming in an authoritative
disciplic succession and is fixed in the Absolute Truth:
tad-vijïanartham sa gurum evabhigacchet
samit-panih srotriyam brahma-nistham
To
understand these things properly, one must humbly approach, with firewood in
hand, a spiritual master who is learned in the Vedas and firmly devoted to the
Absolute Truth.
(Mundaka
Upanisad 1.2.12)
The
ancient sage Dramida has defined the term “upanisad” as that which is deeply
immersed in Brahman (brahmani upanisanneti upanisat).
The
Upanisads contain sacred doctrines (rahasyas) which are to be imparted only to
qualified students. Thus they are described as “guhya-vidya” or secret
knowledge. Since Bhagavad Gita (Gitopanisad) contains the essence of all the
Upanisads, the same concept and indeed the same words appear also there:
sa evayam maya te 'dya
yogah proktah puratanah
bhakto 'si me sakha ceti
rahasyam hy etad uttamam
That
very ancient science of the relationship with the Supreme is today told by Me
to you because you are My devotee as well as My friend and can therefore understand
the transcendental mystery of this science.
(BG 4.3)
idam tu te guhyatamam
pravaksyamy anasuyave
My dear
Arjuna, because you are never envious of Me, I shall impart to you this most
confidential knowledge and realization.
(BG 9.1)
The
Upanisads are known as “brahma-vidya”, knowledge of Brahman. They are the
foundation of all Vedanta schools of thought (the four Vaisnava Sampradayas and
the followers of Adi Sankara).
Muktikopanisad
gives a list of 108 Upanisads (CC Adi Lila, 7.108)
Out
of them there are fourteen Upanisads which are regarded as most important. They
are: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittirya,
Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya, Svetasvatara, Kausitaki, Subala, and Mahanarayana.
These fourteen Upanisdas are usually categorized as principal since they are
extensively quoted in Vedanta Sutra as well as in the bhasyas (commentaries) of
the three important commentators on Vedanta – Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhva. The
first ten Upanisads, known as “Dasopanisads”, have separate commentaries by
both Sankara and Madhva. Ramanuja did not write commentaries on the Upanisads
but his follower Rangaramanuja wrote commentaries on them except Isopanisad.
Although
Baladeva wrote commentaries on the ten Upanisads only his Isopanisad commentary
is available at present.
All
Vedanta schools of thought accept that the principal Upanisads deal with five
main subject matters:
- The nature of Brahman
- The nature of the soul
(jivatma) and its relation to Brahman
- The material energy,
its origin and connection to Brahman
- The means of attaining
Brahman (sadhana)
- The nature of the
Supreme Goal and the status of jiva in mukti
Regarding
the first topic, the nature of Brahman, the central issue is whether Brahman is
without characteristics (this is the Mayavada concept called nirvisesa), or he
has characteristics (that is called the savisesa doctrine, uphold by the
Vaisnavas).
Regarding
the jiva the important topic is whether it is different from Brahman or
identical in all aspects to Him.
Concerning
the material energy, the key issue is whether it is created by Brahman and is
it real or illusory.
As
far as sadhana is concerned, the question is whether knowledge about the
identity between jiva and Brahman is enough for liberation.
And
regarding mukti the major issue is whether the jiva retains its individuality
in the state of liberation (as told by the Vaisnavas), or it is merged in
Brahman (the opinion of the impersonalists).
There
is no disagreement among the different schools of Vedanta that these are the
main topics of the Upanisads. However, the Acaryas differ in the way they
explain them. The differences are caused often by the language of the Upanisads
which is esoteric and conveys more then one meaning. More importantly there are
passages which seem to disagree with each other. The classic example is the
Chandogya Upanisads text “tat tvam asi” which out of the context appears to
establish the identity of the jiva and Brahman. There are other places in the
Upanisads however, were the difference between the living entity and Brahman is
firmly declared (“nityo nityanam cetanans cetananam” (Katha Upanisad).
Similarly
Mundaka Upanisad describes the Absolute Truth in negative terms like invisible
(adresya) and ungraspable (agrahya), suggesting that it is devoid of
characteristics. But the same Upanisads describes Brahman also as omniscient
(sarvajna) and all knowing (sarvavit).
These
apparently contradictory statements have confused the western scholars. The
majority of them made the wrong conclusion that the Upanisads do not present
coherent system of philosophy and if at all a system of philosophy in a broad
sense is formulated, it is the impersonal monism of Sankara.
Thus
the modern scholars, who never practiced or indeed accepted the discipline of
the Vedic method of knowledge, failed to understand the message of the
Upanisads.
The
traditional commentators on Vedanta do not accept the conclusion reached by the
contemporary scholars. All the Acaryas, who were not simply scholars but
spiritually enlightened souls, accept that the Upanisads present a complete and
consistent system of transcendental philosophy.
The
fact that Srila Vyasadeva, the incarnation of the Supreme Personality of
Godhead, systemized the teachings of the Upanisads in his Vedanta Sutra,
establishes without a doubt that the Upanisads contain a unified system of
philosophy.
The
philosophy of the Upanisads is in perfect harmony with the conclusions reached
by all other Vedic literatures:
There is
complete agreement among the Upaniñads, Vedänta-sütra, Vedas, Bhagavad-gétä and
Çrémad-Bhägavatam, and no one should try to reach any conclusion about the
Vedas without receiving instructions from members of Vyäsadeva's disciplic
succession, who believe in the Personality of Godhead and His diverse energies
as they are explained in Çré Éçopaniñad.
(Isopanisad, mantra 6, purp.)
Isopanisad
Isopanisad
(or Isavasyopanisad) is usually listed as the first of the Dasopanisads. It
appears in the Vajasaneya Samhita of Sukla Yajurveda. The thirty-nine chapters
of the Sukla Yajurveda deal with sacrifice and duties (karma). The last chapter
is Isopanisad which deals with knowledge. The Upanisad is placed at the end of
the Samhita to indicate that all activities described in the Samhita should be
performed with knowledge.
Although
it is one of the smallest Upanisads containing only 18 mantras, it is highly
respected among all Indian transcendentalists because it represents in a terse
form the fundamental topics of Vedanta. Srila Baladeva Vidyabhusana declares
Isopanisad as “the acarya among the srutis”.
Among
the principal proponents of Vedanta, Sankara and Madhva have written a
commentary on Isopanisad. Although Ramanuja has not written a separate
commentary, he has commented on some important mantras in Sribhasya and
Vedartha-sangraha.
The
very first word of the first mantra of Isopanisad (isavasyam) is a starting
point of a discussion about the nature of the Ultimate Reality (Brahman). Isa
refers to the Supreme Ruler of the Universe, the Lord. According to Ramanuja
the word “vasyam” means that which is being pervaded. “Vasyam” can imply also
that the Supreme Lord as the supporter of the universe is present in everything
as Supersoul. “Idam sarvam” refers to all conscious beings and inert matter,
and the word kincha means that there is nothing that is not pervaded by the
Lord.
Madhva
interprets the compound word “isa-vasyam” as the universe which is the
residence of the Supreme Personality of Godhead (SB 8.1.10). The word
“jagatyam” refers to the primeval matter and “jagat” denotes the manifested
creation. The universe is dependent on the Supreme Ruler and it is by His grace
that it is able to function.
Isopanasiad
firmly asserts that the Supreme Being is the Ruler and the Owner of the cosmic
creation. Since He is described in
clearly personal features He can not be the impersonal (nirvisesa) Brahman. The
very word “Isa” (translated by Srila Prabhupada as “The Lord”) suggests that we
deal with two different entities, namely the Ruler and the ruled (Isa and
anisa). “Isa” means also that the universe is dependent on the Supreme Lord.
In
Isopanisad the Supreme Personality of Godhead is described as “ekam”, (one)
which implies that there is nothing greater or equal to Him. He is unmoving
(anejat) because all other beings in the universe are pervaded by Him.
According to the illustrious successor of Ramanuja, Vedanta Desika, the
description of the Lord as being simultaneously far and near (mantra 5) means
that He is very far from the atheists and very near to the devotees.
Sankara
interprets the mantras 6 and 7 in a sense that only Brahman is real and the
universe does not actually exist (brahma satyam jagan mithya). All Vaisnava
commentators refute this theory. The followers of Ramanuja point out that in
the context of the opening hymn of Isopananisad, the material creation, which
is supported and pervaded by the Lord, cannot be false. The alignment of
Brahman and the cosmos which is suggested in the mantra 7 does not mean that
only Brahman is real and the universe is bogus. It means that the Supreme Lord
is present inside the universe as a Supersoul (Antaryamin).
Srila
Prabhupada also rejects the idea that the material world is false:
This
material world is avyaya, eternal energy, but it is not false, as the Mayavad
philosophers say, jagan mithya. No. Jagat is not mithya, it is fact, but it is
temporary. That is the Vaisnava philosophy. We don't say that this world is
false. Why should it be false? If it has come from the truth, how can it be false?
Purnam idam, purnam adah, purnam adam, purnat purnam udacyate. It is perfect.
But it is being misused. That is maya. How is it being misused? Krishna says
that He is the enjoyer. Bhoktaram yajña-tapasam sarva-loka-mahesvaram. He is
the proprietor of all the lokas, all the brahmandas, but unfortunately, we are
dismissing Krishna. We are trying to be the enjoyer of this material world.
That is maya. The world is not maya, but the intention of the living entities
to enjoy this material world, to satisfy their senses, that is maya. They are
becoming entangled while trying to enjoy this material world.
(Srila
Prabhupada lecture, Bg 16.10 Hawaii 1975)
In
another lecture Srila Prabhupada points out how the mayavadis reached out this
fallacious conclusion:
One is
very, very busy for acquiring things for enjoy, sense enjoyment, and when he's
dissatisfied, he cannot fully enjoy, neither he's satisfied, he says, brahma
satyam jagan mithya, "This world is false. There is no need of this world.
The grapes are sour." The same story. The jackal and the grapes. A jackal
wanted to eat the grapes, and it jumped many times, but could not approach the
grapes. So at last he satisfied himself that "There is no need of the
grapes. It is sour." So this brahma satyam jagan mithya is like that. When
one is fed up or tired of this world, he cannot enjoy it due to age or other
circumstances, at that time, he says, jagan mithya. Why jagan mithya? If God is
truth, then creation of God is also truth. Why it should be mithya? But because
he has no knowledge, sufficient knowledge of the Vedic instruction, isavasyam
idam sarvam, purnam adah purnat purnam udacyate [Isopanisad, mantra 1], he does
not know that creation of God is complete.
(Srila
Prabhupada lecture SB 1.2.19, 30 October 1972, Vrindavana)
In
mantra 2 Isopanisad emphasizes the performance of karma for a lifetime. The
text reads:
“One
may aspire to live for hundreds of years if he continuously goes on working in
that way…”
In
his commentary on this verse Sankara states that this injunction applies only
to the karma-yogis who have not attained atmajnana (knowledge that the self is
different form the matter). For the jnana-yogis, or the persons who have
attained atmajnana, it is not necessary to perform any kind of prescribed activities;
rather they should only meditate on the impersonal Brahman. The implication of
this statement is that the fruitive work and bhakti are considered identical,
and thus bhakti is not actually required for attaining mukti.
According
to the followers of Madhva and Ramanuja however, the term “karma” should be
understood in a sense of performing the prescribed duties without attachment to
their fruits and with full dedication to the Supreme Lord. Such activity does
not cause material bondage (na karma lipyate nare). Ramanuja particularly
defines karma as an aid (anga) of upasana (bhakti). The practitioner overcomes
the reactions from his sinful and pious deeds by performing detached work
(karma), and thus freed from material bondage meditates on the Lord (upasana).
Only through upasana aided by karma one is able to achieve the Supreme Goal. In
his purport to this verse Srila Prabhupada develops this concept:
The
instructions of Sri Isopanisad are more elaborately explained in the
Bhagavad-gita, sometimes called the Gitopanisad, the cream of all the
Upanisads. In the Bhagavad-gita (3.9-16) the Personality of Godhead says that
one cannot attain the state of naiskarmya, or akarma, without executing the
prescribed duties mentioned in the Vedic literature. This literature can
regulate the working energy of a human being in such a way that he can
gradually realize the authority of the Supreme Being. When he realizes the
authority of the Personality of Godhead—Vasudeva, or Krishna—it is to be
understood that he has attained the stage of positive knowledge. In this
purified stage the modes of nature—namely goodness, passion and
ignorance—cannot act, and he is able to work on the basis of naiskarmya. Such
work does not bind one to the cycle of birth and death. (Isopanisad, mantra 2, purport)
The
four concluding mantras of Isopanisad describe the conditioned soul as covered
by the lower modes of material nature (apihitam). The self can be uplifted and
restored in its original position only by the mercy of the Supreme Personality
of Godhead. The statement from the mantra 16 “yo’sav asau purusah so ham asmi”
is taken by Sankara to means that the individual soul and Brahman are one and
the same. However, according to Ramanuja here “I” does not mean only the
individual soul, but the Supersoul in it as well, and “purusa” refers to the
Supreme Person as indicated in the Purusa Sukta from Rgveda. Consequently the
text implies that the Paramatma in me is the same as the Paramatma situated
everywhere else in the universe. Madhva reads the verse in the same way: “the
Purusa who is present in all the demigods is present in me as the Lord. The God
present in all these is one.”
According
to the Vaisnava Acaryas the word “agni” in the concluding hymn refers to the
Paramatma. Only Paramatma can eradicate the impediments in the form of sins and
take the devotee to His Supreme Abode which is the final goal of the spiritual
practice. Vedanta Desika points out that the last mantra of Isopanisad demand
full surrender of the soul to the Supersoul (saranagati). Srila Prabhupada’s
comment on this mantra is in the same spirit:
By
surrendering to the Lord and praying for His causeless mercy, the devotee can
progress on the path of complete self-realization. The Lord is addressed as
fire because He can burn anything into ashes, including the sins of the
surrendered soul.
(Isopanisad
mantra 18, purport)
The sacrificer makes for himself
that passage across, a bridge (setu), for the attainment of the heavenly world.
He in whom the heaven (dyauh), the earth (pritivi) and the sky
(antariksam) are woven, the mind (manah) also, with all the vital airs (prana);
know Him as the Self (atma), and pay no heed to other words, for He is the
bridge to immortality.
I know that Supreme Person, radiant like the sun beyond darkness.
Knowing Him alone, one crosses over death. He is the only path to immortality.
